Describe the diagnostic criteria for substance use disorders, Identify the neurotransmitter systems impacted by various categories of drugs, Describe how different categories of drugs affect behavior and experience, Understand the similarities and differences of hypnosis and meditation. The participant is made comfortable and is directed to be relaxed and sleepy. Given the central role that sleep plays in our lives and the number of adverse consequences that have been associated with sleep deprivation, one would think that we would have a clear understanding of why it is that we sleep. In 2013, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration recommended tighter controls on their medical use. Causes. For example, around one third of individuals diagnosed with narcolepsy experience vivid, dream-like hallucinations during narcoleptic attacks (Chokroverty, 2010). Typically, individuals suffering from night terrors will fall back asleep again within a short time. Stage 1 sleepis a transitional phase that occurs between wakefulness and sleep, the period during which we drift off to sleep. In addition, these drugs can cause feelings of anxiety, hallucinations, and paranoia (Fiorentini et al., 2011). In general, these drugs are not thought to possess the same sort of abuse potential as other classes of drugs discussed in this section. The axons of light-sensitive neurons in the retina provide information to the SCN based on the amount of light present, allowing this internal clock to be synchronized with the outside world (Klein, Moore, & Reppert, 1991; Welsh, Takahashi, & Kay, 2010) (Figure 4.3). It is possible that even the processing of emotional information is influenced by certain aspects of sleep (Walker, 2009). Rather, the ISS r ecognizes mixed states and depressive symptoms during manic and hypomanic episodes. Many of these drugs, and their relationships, are shown inTable 4.2. For instance, some people would say they are morning people, while others would consider themselves to be night owls. These individual differences in circadian patterns of activity are known as a persons chronotype, and research demonstrates that morning larks and night owls differ with regard to sleep regulation (Taillard, Philip, Coste, Sagaspe, & Bioulac, 2003). This becomes a self-perpetuating cycle because increased anxiety leads to increased arousal, and higher levels of arousal make the prospect of falling asleep even more unlikely. People who suffer from this disorder can injure themselves or their sleeping partners when engaging in these behaviors. The typical episode can last from a minute or two to half an hour. One popular hypothesis of sleep incorporates the perspective of evolutionary psychology. During sleep, the pituitary gland secretes both FSH and LH which are important in regulating the reproductive system (Christensen et al., 2012; Sofikitis et al., 2008). In addition, stage 1 sleep involves a marked decrease in both overall muscle tension and core body temperature. There is a trend that females report more somatic symptoms than males; thus, more females are diagnosed with somatic symptom disorder than males (APA, 2022). Insomnia, a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep, is the most common of the sleep disorders. While there is tremendous variation in any given individuals sleep needs, the National Sleep Foundation (n.d.) cites research to estimate that newborns require the most sleep (between 12 and 18 hours a night) and that this amount declines to just 79 hours by the time we are adults. Loss of appetite. A neighbor called the police after witnessing Falater standing over his wifes body before dragging her into the pool. c. deaths due to accidents have increased. For instance, if a woman dreams about being chased by a snake, Freud might have argued that this represents the womans fear of sexual intimacy, with the snake serving as a symbol of a mans penis. Still, people experiencing opioid withdrawal may be given methadone to make withdrawal from the drug less difficult. These initiatives include increasing access to treatment and recovery services, increasing access to overdose-reversal drugs like Naloxone, and implementing better public health monitoring systems (NIDA, 2019). Weakness and fatigue. Jet lagis a collection of symptoms that results from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our environment. A) managed care (credit a: modification of work by Jim Epler; credit b: modification of work by Caleb Roenigk), video about circadian rhythms and how they affect sleep, video that gives sleep tips for college students, video about the relationship between sleep and memory, instructional video about using Buddhist meditation techniques to alleviate stress, video about the results of a brain imaging study in individuals who underwent specific mindfulness meditative techniques, https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction, Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, Cocaine, amphetamines (including some ADHD medications such as Adderall), methamphetamines, MDMA (Ecstasy or Molly), Increased heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature. Neurogenic shock is caused by damage to the central nervous system, usually a spinal cord injury. Bloating or a feeling of fullness in the abdomen. Yarmila Falaters body was found in the familys pool with 44 stab wounds. For one, research suggests that infants should be placed on their backs when put down to sleep, and their cribs should not contain any items which pose suffocation threats, such as blankets, pillows or padded crib bumpers (cushions that cover the bars of a crib). This will be followed by brief descriptions of the effects of some of the more well-known drugs commonly used today. During periods of sleepwalking, sleepers often have their eyes open, but they are not responsive to attempts to communicate with them. Because the biological clock is driven by light, exposure to bright light during working shifts and dark exposure when not working can help combat insomnia and symptoms of anxiety and depression (Huang, Tsai, Chen, & Hsu, 2013). There are a variety of drugs that treat restless leg syndrome: benzodiazepines, opiates, and anticonvulsants (Restless Legs Syndrome Foundation, n.d.). Generally, and for most people, our circadian cycles are aligned with the outside world. Aside from the role that REM sleep may play in processes related to learning and memory, REM sleep may also be involved in emotional processing and regulation. describes our awareness of internal and external stimuli. This theory is supported by Ernest Hilgards research into hypnosis and pain. Some sleep-deprived individuals have difficulty staying awake when they stop moving (for example sitting and watching television or driving a car). To keep heroin affordable, many dealers began adding more potent synthetic opioids including fentanyl and carfentanyl to increase the effects of heroin. We experience different states of consciousness and different levels of awareness on a regular basis. People sleep better in cooler temperatures. These symptoms include fatigue, sluggishness, irritability, and insomnia (i.e., a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep for at least three nights a week over a month's time) (Roth, 2007). Although there are a number of different techniques in use, the central feature of all meditation is clearing the mind in order to achieve a state of relaxed awareness and focus (Chen et al., 2013; Lang et al., 2012). As we move intostage 2 sleep, the body goes into a state of deep relaxation. According to Jung, certain symbols in dreams reflected universal archetypes with meanings that are similar for all people regardless of culture or location. You don't have to be a psychologist to know that conditions like hunger or fatigue have an impact on thinking and decision-making; these are examples of internal states. Vaping as a means to deliver nicotine is becoming increasingly popular, especially among teens and young adults. Research shows that the most severe effects of sleep deprivation occur when a person stays awake for more than 24 hours (Killgore & Weber, 2014; Killgore et al., 2007), or following repeated nights with fewer than four hours in bed (Wickens, Hutchins, Lauk, Seebook, 2015). 1. Psychological dependence on these drugs is also possible. . Withdrawal from opioids includes pain, which patients often misinterpret as pain caused by the problem that led to the original prescription, and which motivates patients to continue using the drugs. Consider a patient who believed that as a result of his sleep apnea he had three car accidents in six weeks. As discussed by Siegel (2008), a definition of sleep must also include mention of the interplay of the circadian and homeostatic mechanisms that regulate sleep. Site has information/education resources on a broad range of topics, including asthma, birth defects, radiation, sanitation, lead in blood, and more. Taking a different approach to explain hypnosis, the social-cognitive theory of hypnosis sees people in hypnotic states as performing the social role of a hypnotized person. Some view a hypnotized persons behavior not as an altered or dissociated state of consciousness, but as their fulfillment of the social expectations for that role (Coe, 2009; Coe & Sarbin, 1966). the ability to spend time, good time with them when youre not feeling absolutely exhausted . Opioids have analgesic properties; that is, they decrease pain. a. Indeed, we know sleep deprivation results in disruptions in cognition and memory deficits (Brown, 2012), leading to impairments in our abilities to maintain attention, make decisions, and recall long-term memories. Unfortunately, this is not the case; however, several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the function of sleep. Confusion. Awareness of external stimuli includes experiences such as seeing the light from the sun, feeling the warmth of a room, and hearing the voice of a friend. (a) Common paraphernalia for heroin preparation and use are shown here in a needle exchange kit. Awareness of internal stimuli includes feeling pain, hunger, thirst, sleepiness, and being aware of our thoughts and emotions. Some of these areas include the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the pons. Natural opioids, calledopiates, are derivatives of opium, which is a naturally occurring compound found in the poppy plant. Caffeine is found in many common medicines (such as weight loss drugs), beverages, foods, and even cosmetics (Herman & Herman, 2013). These synthetic drugs are so potent that even small doses can cause overdose and death. That is why individuals suffering from sleep deprivation can also put themselves and others at risk when they put themselves behind the wheel of a car or work with dangerous machinery. However, the success rate of such treatments is questionable. Sleep apneais defined by episodes during which a sleepers breathing stops. This hypnogram illustrates how an individual moves through the various stages of sleep. Caffeine is another stimulant drug. Inflammation has many causes, including infections, injuries, and diseases. Although she had been taking a prescription antidepressant, her symptoms of depression continued to worsen and she began to suffer physically, displaying significant warning signs of cardiovascular disease and diabetes. 1. Again, this is an intuitive and appealing explanation for why we sleep. One of the nurses said, If youve had a partner who does work regular job 9 to 5 office hours . During this time, there is a slowdown in both the rates of respiration and heartbeat. Sleep is not a uniform state of being. 3. Latent content, on the other hand, refers to the hidden meaning of a dream. Many individuals diagnosed with sleep apnea first seek treatment because their sleeping partners indicate that they snore loudly and/or stop breathing for extended periods of time while sleeping (Henry & Rosenthal, 2013). Some people also experience altered states of consciousness through meditation, hypnosis, or alcohol and other drugs. The participant is encouraged to use his or her imagination. Infants should not have caps placed on their heads when put down to sleep in order to prevent overheating, and people in the childs household should abstain from smoking in the home. Surprisingly, sleep apnea may exacerbate cardiovascular disease (Snchez-de-la-Torre, Campos-Rodriguez, & Barb, 2012). The brain waves associated with this stage of sleep are very similar to those observed when a person is awake, as shown inFigure 4.11, and this is the period of sleep in which dreaming occurs. Stimulant users seek aeuphoric high, feelings of intense elation and pleasure, especially in those users who take the drug via intravenous injection or smoking. The first three stages of sleep are NREM sleep, while the fourth and final stage of sleep is REM sleep. The brain waves associated with REM sleep, outlined in the red box in (a), look very similar to those seen (b) during wakefulness. This section will describe several sleep disorders as well as some of their treatment options. Humans have an endogenous opioid neurotransmitter systemthe body makes small quantities of opioid compounds that bind to opioid receptors reducing pain and producing euphoria. Not surprisingly, insomnia treatment may take one of several different approaches. A number of risk factors have been associated with SIDS including premature birth, smoking within the home, and hyperthermia. It is typically consumed in pill form. The clock sets itself with light information received through projections from the retina. Abnormal Motor Behavior. Our experiences change dramatically while we are in deep sleep and once again when we are dreaming. In fact, this relationship is so robust that some view the presence of RBD as a potential aid in the diagnosis and treatment of a number of neurodegenerative diseases (Ferini-Strambi, 2011). Has something like this ever happened to you? This is of such concern that people who are trying to overcome addiction to these substances should only do so under medical supervision. In the variation of mindful meditation, the meditators attention is focused on some internal process or an external object (Zeidan, Grant, Brown, McHaffie, & Coghill, 2012). (credit a: modification of work by Todd Huffman), Psychedelic images like this are often associated with hallucinogenic compounds. In other words, physical dependence in and of itself is of limited utility in determining whether or not someone has a substance use disorder. Users can experience physical symptoms that include nausea, elevated blood pressure, and increased heart rate. Anopioidis one of a category of drugs that includes heroin, morphine, methadone, and codeine. The following describe internal states of symptoms EXCEPT? Clonazepam, an anti-anxiety medication with sedative properties, is most often used to treat RBD. While there are variations, there are four parts that appear consistent in bringing people into the state of suggestibility associated with hypnosis (National Research Council, 1994). Opium, Heroin, Fentanyl, Morphine, Oxycodone, Vicoden, methadone, and other prescription pain relievers, Decreased pain, pupil dilation, decreased gut motility, decreased respiratory function. You have read that sleep is distinguished by low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness. Originally reported as a safe alternative to the known cancer-causing agents found in cigarettes, vaping is now known to be very dangerous and has led to serious lung disease and death in users. D) the demographic characteristics of the person C) the severity and duration of the problem. It is relatively easy to wake someone from stage 1 sleep; in fact, people often report that they have not been asleep if they are awoken during stage 1 sleep. Aches and pains, such as severe headache and muscle and joint pain. Thepineal gland, an endocrine structure located inside the brain that releases melatonin, is thought to be involved in the regulation of various biological rhythms and of the immune system during sleep (Hardeland, Pandi-Perumal, & Cardinali, 2006). In the therapeutic setting, a clinician may use relaxation and suggestion in an attempt to alter the thoughts and perceptions of a patient.